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Svalbard
"The land of the cold coasts"
Willem Barents found no modern infrastructure waiting for him when he landed on Svalbard in 1596, thus opening the archipelago's modern history. The Dutch seafarer, who named the islands Spitsbergen, was also unaware of ancient writings which indicate that Svalbard, i.e the land of the cold coasts - may have been discovered by the Vikings as early as 1194. Ancient Icelandic writings relate that the Land "north of the ocean bed" lay four days' voyage away, and was a part of Green-land.
By Helge Loland
Barents' discovery was followed by hectic whaling activity, mainly on the part of the Dutch and British, though Norwegians, Frenchmen, Basques and Hanseatics also joined in. In the busiest season settlements were established on land, where whale blubber was boiled in massive copper cauldrons. The Dutch settlement of Smeerenburg was the largest of these communities, with 1,200 inhabitants at the height of the season.
From the early 1700s Russian hunters, whalers and sealers - dispatched from the monasteries of the Russian coast of the polar sea, gathered down and eggs, hunting at the same time for reindeer, walrus and fur bearing animals. These activities ceased around 1820. Norwegian sealing on Svalbard reached its peak at a somewhat later date, towards the end of the last century.
When coal was found at the beginning of this century it sparked renewed competition for natural resources. Up to the start of WWI, Americans, Britons, Dutch, Germans, Russians and Norwegians worked in the mines. Conflict arose, however, on the matter of rights. These could only be settled by a full clarification of sovereignty on Svalbard.
The Treaty of Svalbard
Under the terms of the Treaty of Svalbard, of 1920, Norway was awarded sovereignty over the island group. The other original signatories were the USA, Denmark, France, Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, The United Kingdom, Eire, the British overseas territories and Sweden. In 1924 Germany joined the signatory nations and in 1935 the Soviets did the same. A total of 40 countries have now signed the Treaty. Svalbard became a part of the Kingdom of Norway on 14th August 1925.
The Treaty of Svalbard grants to Norway "full and absolute sovereignty over Svalbard", though Norway is under obligation to give citizens of the signatory countries equality in matters relating to economic activities. Fortifications and naval bases are prohibited, and the islands are not to be used for the purposes of war.
During WWII there were skirmishes on Svalbard. The mining population was evacuated by the British in 1941. Spitsbergen was occupied thereafter by German forces, who in their turn were driven out by British and Norwegian troops. In 1943 the mining towns were bombarded and destroyed by German battleships.
Nature and landscape
The visitor to Svalbard will discover a fascinating land of high mountains, its craggy coast deeply gashed by fjords, with alluvial plains beyond. On the west coast of Spitsbergen lies Isfjorden, with fjord arms extending to Longyearbyen, Barentsburg, and Pyramiden, and, further north, Kongsfjord and Ny Ålesund.
The landscape forms vary in accordance with local geological structures. On the west coast of Spitsbergen hard rocks such as gneiss, granite and crystalline slates, form wild, jagged peaks. Here the highest summits are Monacofjellet and Tyskertoppen (respectively 1,084 and 1,012 metres above sea level). East of Widjefjorden looms Svalbard's highest peak - Perriertoppen, or Newtontoppen - which is 1,717 metres above sea level. These crags inspired Willem Barents to name the island group Spitsbergen.
The sedimentary layers on Svalbard contain fossils which enable geologists to trace the earth's history with greater continuity than at equivalent sites elsewhere in the world.
Sedimentary strata of this type are to be found further inland on Spitsbergen and on the islands to the east. These mountains are typified by their flat summits and stair-like slopes, where softer rocks such as slate, sandstone, and chalk have been deposited in an almost horizontal series of layers. The beautiful mountain massif is a paradise for geologists, cruise tourists and other visitors. Small wonder that the visitor is spellbound at seeing the earth's history so clearly illustrated.
Today about 60% of Svalbard is covered by eternal ice. Many of the glaciers extend right to the coast, only to break off or "calve" there. The permafrost in the coastal areas descends to about 100 metres, while inland it extends to a depth of 500 metres.
Mineral resources
The coalseams of Svalbard were formed during several geological periods. Coal has been mined since the beginning of this century, but since 1920-1930 only Norwegian and Soviet companies have continued operations there. Russian production is about 500,000 tonnes per year; Norwegian around 400,000 tonnes.
The rocks also contain valuable minerals such as phosphate, asbestos, iron ore, galena, zinc blende and copper pyrite, though none in commercial quantities.
The geological conditions at certain locations on the islands encouraged Norwegian and overseas companies to prospect extensively for oil and gas. The drillings yielded valuable information on the geology of Svalbard, but no commercial finds.
Environmental protection
Although economic activities are encouraged on Svalbard, newcomers must adhere to strict environmental regulations. The authorities demand a detailed impact analysisfor activities planned within the vulnerable polar environment. The legal basis for this requirement is the Treaty of Svalbard, which clearly states that Norway is to formulate "appropriate rules" so as to preserve or reestablish animal and plant life.
With this in mind, the authorities have created three national parks, (Sør-Spitsbergen, Forlandet and Nordvest-Spitsbergen), two nature reserves, (Nordøst and Sørøst- Svalbard), three plant-protection areas, (Midt-Spitsbergen), and 15 bird sanctuaries - (along the west coast of Spitsbergen). Permanent stipulations require that visitors at all times pay due consideration to the environment, that they avoid polluting it, or damaging plant or animal life in any way. There is a general ban on motorized vehicles
(with certain exceptions for the local population). Hunting is permitted outside the protected areas on arctic fox, ring seal,the bearded seal and nine species of birds, including the grouse. Char can be netted outside the protected areas, but only by the residents of Svalbard.
The protected areas on Svalbard comprise almost half of its land area. Large parts of the protected zones consist of glaciers. There are still areas where mining is permitted within the bounds of South Spitsbergen National Park.
Plant and animal life
The springtime blooming of plant plancton in the Barents Sea, when the ice pack melts, constitutes the main basis for the fauna of Svalbard. This enormous production is a life-source for fish, seals and seabirds. In the summer months when they feed their offspring, seafowl transport some of this production to the bird rocks around Svalbard. Thus the sea provides Svalbard with nutrients which in turn make the basis for plant growth, herbivores and carnivores (Arctic fox and birds).
Oceanographic and climatic differences have considerable effect on plant life. Along the west coast, vegetation can in certain areas be quite p rolific, with flowers, fungae, and carpets of moss and grass. Vegetation is particularly lush beneath the bird rocks.
In the north and east, plants are smaller and large areas are barren. So far, 164 species of plant have been registered on Svalbard. There are no ordinary trees or bushes.
There are only four types of land mammal on Svalbard, the polar bear, the Arctic fox the Svalbard reindeer and a field mouse (microtus epiroticus). Musk oxe were set out on Svalbard in 1930, but the herd died out in 1985.
Because over-hunting was driving them toward extinction, Svalbard reindeer were protected in 1925. Today they number about 10,000. The Svalbard reindeer is one of seven sub-species of the wild Arctic reindeer, and they are only found on the island group. Their body structure and mode of life is especially well adapted to tolerate severe cold and sparse vegetation.
Studies undertaken on Svalbard indicate that the polar bears in the Svalbard area belong to a larger stock which roams the Arctic regions from East Greenland, and eastwards past Svalbard to the Russian islands.
During the summer the polar bears on Svalbard normally keep to the pack ice along the north and east coasts. In the winter they can be observed as rovers on the west coast. But they can also be observed roaming through this area in the summer. Old males can be hungry and extremely aggressive. The polar bear is otherwise described as a short-sighted and inquisitive hunter - and one it is advisable to keep at a distance!
The number of polar bears roaming the regions from Greenland to Svalbard and Franz Josef Land was estimated at the beginning of the 1980s to be around 4,000 to 6,000. The Svalbard polar bear population is smaller, about 2,000. The normal life span of polar bears is up to 20 years.
A number of Arctic marine mammals inhabit the waters around Svalbard, but previous relentless hunting has sharply reduced their numbers. This applies particulaly to a number of whales, such as the Greenland whale. The walrus was also over-hunted had to be totally protected in 1952. Now its population has increased to about 1,000.
All in all, about 163 species of birds have been found on Svalbard, but only 20 to 30 of these regularly nest there. Most of the birds are migrants, but a few species stay over winter. Most of the birds are dependent on the marine environment.
The char is the only species of fish in rivers and lakes. In the ocean however, are cod, capelin, haddock, Greenland halibut, redfish and shrimp.
Cultural relics
Although the preservation of Svalbard's natural environment is given high priority, the authorities are also interested in safeguarding the many remains of former activities. These are largely related to:
* international whaling and walrus hunting in the seventeenth century
* hunting, whaling and sealing by Russians, who stayed over winter - eighteenth century
* Norwegian hunting, sealing and whaling in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, as well as international research
* industrialization (i.e. coal-mining) from the early twentieth century to the present day, and research activity this century.
Although proposals were made as early as 1926 that cultural relics be protected, legislation on the matter was not passed until 1974. A new regulation was passed in 1972.
It is stipulated among other things that all permanent and cultural relics from 1945 or earlier are to be automatically protected. In addition, the Central Office of Historic Monuments can pass regulations to protect more contemporary cultural relics.
Tourism
On account of its location, Svalbard has a special place in the Arctic milie u. The islands and their surrounding seas are the most easily accessible of all the high-Arctic areas. This makes Svalbard attractive both as a base for Arctic research and for a limited and regulated tourism. The preservation of the wild landscapes and unspoiled natural environment serves a double purpose. It is a goal in itself, and it is valuable for future research. In a draft plan for future commercial activities on Svalbard, new jobs are proposed created in both these sectors.
Svalbard has attracted tourists to its shores since the mid-1800s. The opening of Longyearbyen airport in 1975 added a new dimension to tourism. The Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS) and Braathens SAFE today traffic the route Tromsø - Longyearbyen five times a week in the winter and six or seven times a week in the summer.
Internal communications are relatively poorly developed. Longyearbyen has a bus route, taxis and car hire facilities, but the lack of a road network outside the settled areas restricts travel considerably. When there is spare capacity, helicopters and light aircraft can be chartered for sightseeing and trips to other settlements. Ny Ålesund can be reached by a scheduled plane route once or twice weekly. In the winter, one can hire a snowscooter or a dog sled with a guide. In the summer, guided hikes lasting from hours to days are available. Rubber boats can also be rented.
Right up to 1966 the District Governor of Svalbard used a dog team when he made his regular inspection and service trips. After the dogs were pensioned off, the ski-scooter took over. The Governor now uses a helicopter or boat.
Neither passport nor visa are required by the prospective visitor to Svalbard, but for safety reasons tourists and expeditions should register at the office of the Governor and report on the route they intend to follow and the planned duration of any journeys away from Longyearbyen. A special tourist regulation is in effect. It stipulates that notification is mandatory for all travel in or to national parks and nature reserves. One can also be required to take out an insurance policy or provide a bank guarantee if expedition plans are evaluated as risky. Thus one should always contact the office of the Governor prior to planning a lengthy trip to Svalbard. About 2,000 tourists (including those on guided tours) go on hikes and cross country ski trips on Svalbard every year.
New accommodation opportunities have sprung up in Longyearbyen which tallies about 20,000 travel-related overnight stays annually. Accommodation is also possible at the Russian settlements in Ny Ålesund. At Longyearbyen and Ny Ålesund
More and more cruise ships are now making Svalbard a port of call. Each year around 25 of these vessels make a total of 40 to 50 Svalbard tours carrying 15,000 - 20,000 passengers.
Research
In 1962, the Norwegian Polar Research Institute started developing its division at Longyearbyen. The initiative is viewed as an important strategic commitment to match international activities and interest in the polar areas - mounting needs for research, environmental surveillance and alternative economic activities. The transfer of much of the institute's logistics and professional activities to the island group is also considered to be vital to Norwegian effectuation of sovereignty. The institute expects this commitment to be followed up by other research institutions that also could benefit from a foothold on Svalbard.
The terms of the Treaty of Svalbard also permit foreign scientists to work on Svalbard, and in recent years many research teams have operated there. Both Norwegian and foreign research centres alike have collaborated on Svalbard projectswith the Norwegian Polar Research Institute. Through the years, the island group has been the target of numerousforeign expeditions.
The Norwegian Polar Research Institute operates a permanent research station in the old mining town of Ny Ålesund at 79 degrees 55 minutes north. This is one of the most northerly permanent land stations in the world, serving both as an observatory, a laboratory and a field operations base for scientific institutions.
The newly started university studies (UNIS)
University studies on Svalbard (UNIS) is a private foundation started by Norway's four universities. Classes opened in the autumn of 1993 with 23 students studying Arctic geology and Arctic geophysics. In the autumn of 1994, a class in Arctic biology will be added. With 15 studying each of the subjects, the new "campus" will have 45 students.
The plan is to develop UNIS into an institution with 100 students -70 undergraduates and the remaining 30 involved in post-graduate and doctoral pursuits. The studies are intended to supplement an education at the mainland universities and as far as possible will be integrated with an ordinary curriculum. UNIS will also carry out research based on Svalbard's geographical position as an Arctic region.
In time, UNIS will form the core of an international Arctic competence centre, drawing on institutions representing an array of disciplines. Its curriculum will be given an international profile, and from the autumn of 1994 some of the education will be in English.
Administration
Longyearbyen, the administrative capital of Svalbard, was established by the Arctic Coal Co. in 1906. The town is named after the coal company's founder, the American J.M. Longyear.
Stationed in Longyearbyen are the District Governor of Svalbard and other civil servants. The Governor, who reports to the Ministry of Justice, functions as a combination of county governor, chief of police and notary public. As chief of police he also heads the local life-saving services. Mining activities are administrated by a special mining superintendent.
State administration of the islands is in the hands of the District Governor. Issues relating to Svalbard are generally dealt with in the various ministries of central government. An inter-ministerial committee headed by the Minister of Justice is responsible for coordinating administrative issues relating to Svalbard. A local advisory body - the council of Svalbard - has also been established. Norwegian civil and criminal law is applicable on Svalbard as is Norwegian legislation relating to the judicial system. Other laws are only applicable when specifically stipulated.
Longyearbyen has hotels and restaurants, shops, a hospital, a church, a museum, primary and secondary schools, university classes, and its own newspaper.
Svalbard Radio in Longyearbyen is the main base for telecommunications on the islands.
Direct telephone communication to the Norwegian mainland via Svalbard Radio-satellite was opened in 1979. A telephone connection to the Soviet settlements was established in 1989. Svalbard started receiving its first direct television programmes from the mainland in 1984.
The author of this article, Helge Loland, is editor at Nytt fra Norge.
Facts on Svalbard
* The Svalbard archipelago in the high Arctic consists of four large islands and a number of smaller ones totalling in area 63,000 square kilometres, glaciers covering 60% of this area. The largest of the islands is Spitsbergen, which constitutes more than half of the total area of the islands.
* Norway's sovereignty over Svalbard and the territorial waters surrounding it is based on the terms of the Treaty of Svalbard, signed in 1920. The Svalbard Act of 1925 establishes that the island group is a part of the Kingdom of Norway.
* The distance from North Norway to the southern tip of Spitsbergen is 567 kilometres, the exact position of the islands being latitude 74 to 81° north and longitude 10 to 35° east.
* One branch of the Gulf Stream swings northward off the west coast of Spitsbergen; another flows into the Barents Sea. This gives Svalbard a milder climate than its geographical position would otherwise indicate. The mean monthly temperature varies between -15.3° Celsius (January) and +5.8 ° (July). Lowest recorded temperature is -46.3° C, highest is +21.3° C.
* 95% of Svalbard is owned by the state. The rest is so-called treaty land; owned by mining companies.
* Coal is the most important mineral resource, but prospecting for oil and gas is also in progress.
* The population of Svalbard is about 2,500 (1999 update); 62% of these are foreign nationals, mostly Russians. The population is largely concentrated around the settlements of Longyearbyen, Ny Ålesund, Barentsburg, Svea and Pyramiden.
* The "average" employee of the Store Norske Spitsbergen Kulcompani in 1992 was 40 years of age and had worked on Svalbard for 10½ years.
* Longyearbyen, the administrative capital of the islands, has approximately 1,100 inhabitants.
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This article is © 1994 by the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Nytt fra Norge. Reprinted here with permission.
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